History and settlement Iranian peoples

1 history , settlement

1.1 indo-european roots

1.1.1 proto-indo-iranians
1.1.2 sintashta-petrovka culture
1.1.3 andronovo culture


1.2 scythians , persians
1.3 western , eastern iranians

1.3.1 western iranian peoples
1.3.2 eastern iranian peoples


1.4 later developments

history , settlement
indo-european roots


the andronovo, bmac , yaz cultures have been associated indo-iranians.


proto-indo-iranians

the proto-indo-iranians commonly identified sintashta culture , subsequent andronovo culture within broader andronovo horizon, , homeland area of eurasian steppe borders ural river on west, tian shan on east.

the indo-iranians interacted bactria-magiana culture, called bactria-magiana archaeological complex . proto-indo-iranian arose due influence. indo-iranians borrowed distinctive religious beliefs , practices culture.

the indo-iranian migrations took place in 2 waves. first wave consisted of indo-aryan migration levant, founding mittani kingdom, , migration south-eastward of vedic people, on hindu kush northern india. indo-aryans split-off around 1800–1600 bce iranians, where-after defeated , split 2 groups iranians, dominated central eurasian steppe zone , chased [the indo-aryans] extremities of central eurasia. 1 group indo-aryans founded mitanni kingdom in northern syria; (c. 1500–1300 bce) other group vedic people. christopher i. beckwith suggests wusun, indo-european caucasian people of inner asia in antiquity, of indo-aryan origin.

the second wave interpreted iranian wave, , took place in third stage of indo-european migrations 800 bce onwards.

sintashta-petrovka culture

according allentoft (2015), sintashta culture derived corded ware culture.

the sintashta culture, known sintashta-petrovka culture or sintashta-arkaim culture, bronze age archaeological culture of northern eurasian steppe on borders of eastern europe , central asia, dated period 2100–1800 bce. archaeological manifestation of indo-iranian language group.

the sintashta culture emerged interaction of 2 antecedent cultures. immediate predecessor in ural-tobol steppe poltavka culture, offshoot of cattle-herding yamnaya horizon moved east region between 2800 , 2600 bce. several sintashta towns built on older poltovka settlements or close poltovka cemeteries, , poltovka motifs common on sintashta pottery. sintashta material culture shows influence of late abashevo culture, collection of corded ware settlements in forest steppe zone north of sintashta region predominantly pastoralist. allentoft et al. (2015) found close autosomal genetic relationship between peoples of corded ware culture , sintashta culture.

the earliest known chariots have been found in sintashta burials, , culture considered strong candidate origin of technology, spread throughout old world , played important role in ancient warfare. sintashta settlements remarkable intensity of copper mining , bronze metallurgy carried out there, unusual steppe culture.

because of difficulty of identifying remains of sintashta sites beneath of later settlements, culture distinguished andronovo culture. recognised separate entity forming part of andronovo horizon .

andronovo culture

map of approximate maximal extent of andronovo culture. formative sintashta-petrovka culture shown in darker red. location of earliest spoke-wheeled chariot finds indicated in purple. adjacent , overlapping cultures (afanasevo culture, srubna culture, bmac) shown in green.

the andronovo culture collection of similar local bronze age indo-iranian cultures flourished c. 1800–900 bce in western siberia , west asiatic steppe. better termed archaeological complex or archaeological horizon. name derives village of andronovo (55°53′n 55°42′e / 55.883°n 55.700°e / 55.883; 55.700), in 1914, several graves discovered, skeletons in crouched positions, buried richly decorated pottery. older sintashta culture (2100–1800), formerly included within andronovo culture, considered separately, regarded predecessor, , accepted part of wider andronovo horizon. @ least 4 sub-cultures of andronovo horizon have been distinguished, during culture expands towards south , east:

sintashta-petrovka-arkaim (southern urals, northern kazakhstan, 2200–1600 bce)

the sintashta fortification of ca. 1800 bce in chelyabinsk oblast
the petrovka settlement fortified settlement in kazakhstan
the nearby arkaim settlement dated 17th century


alakul (2100–1400 bce) between oxus , jaxartes, kyzylkum desert

alekseyevka (1300–1100 bce final bronze ) in eastern kazakhstan, contacts namazga vi in turkmenia
ingala valley in south of tyumen oblast


fedorovo (1500–1300 bce) in southern siberia (earliest evidence of cremation , fire cult)

beshkent-vakhsh (1000–800 bce)

the geographical extent of culture vast , difficult delineate exactly. on western fringes, overlaps approximately contemporaneous, distinct, srubna culture in volga-ural interfluvial. east, reaches minusinsk depression, sites far west southern ural mountains, overlapping area of earlier afanasevo culture. additional sites scattered far south koppet dag (turkmenistan), pamir (tajikistan) , tian shan (kyrgyzstan). northern boundary vaguely corresponds beginning of taiga. in volga basin, interaction srubna culture intense , prolonged, , federovo style pottery found far west volgograd.

most researchers associate andronovo horizon indo-iranian languages, though may have overlapped uralic-speaking area @ northern fringe.

scythians , persians

from late 2nd millennium bce 1st millennium bce iranians had expanded eurasian steppe, , iranian peoples such medes, persians, bactrians, , parthians populated iranian plateau.

scythian tribes, along cimmerians, sarmatians , alans populated steppes north of black sea. scythian , sarmatian tribes spread far west great hungarian plain, while settling in ukraine, southern european russia, , balkans, while other scythian tribes, such saka, spread far east xinjiang, china. scythians formed indo-scythian empire, , bactrians formed greco-bactrian kingdom founded diodotus i, satrap of bactria. kushan empire, bactrian roots/connections, once controlled of pakistan, afghanistan, , tajikistan. kushan elite (who chinese called yuezhi) either tocharian-speaking (another indo-european branch) people or eastern iranian language-speaking people.

western , eastern iranians

the division eastern , western group 1st millennium visible in avestan vs. old persian, 2 oldest known iranian languages. old avestan texts known gathas believed have been composed zoroaster, founder of zoroastrianism, yaz culture (c. 1500 bce – 1100 bce) candidate development of eastern iranian culture.

western iranian peoples

geographical extent of iranian influence in 1st century bce. parthian empire (mostly western iranian) shown in red, other areas, dominated scythia (eastern iranian), in orange.



achaemenid empire @ greatest extent under rule of darius (522 bce 486 bce)



persepolis-persian guards



geographic distribution of modern iranian languages



bronze statue of parthian nobleman, national museum of iran




the eastern iranian dialect continuum shown in eastern europe right next area of balto-slavic dialect continuum (purple); latter proposed material cultures correlating speakers of balto-slavic in bronze age (white). red dots = archaic slavic hydronyms



archaeological cultures in eastern-central europe @ beginning of iron age, showing location of proto-scythian culture , alongside balto-slavic cultures (lusatian, milograd , chernoles), c. 750 bce



scythian , related archaeological groups in circum- pontic region, c. 7th 3rd centuries bce

during 1st centuries of 1st millennium bce, ancient persians established in western portion of iranian plateau , appear have interacted considerably elamites , babylonians, while medes entered in contact assyrians. remnants of median language , old persian show common proto-iranian roots, emphasized in strabo , herodotus description of languages similar languages spoken bactrians , sogdians in east. following establishment of achaemenid empire, persian language (referred farsi in persian) spread pars or fars province various regions of empire, modern dialects of iran, afghanistan (also known dari) , central-asia (known tajiki) descending old persian.

at first, western iranian peoples in near east absolutely dominated various assyrian empires. alliance medes, persians, , rebelling babylonians, scythians, chaldeans, , cimmerians, helped medes capture nineveh in 612 bce, resulted in eventual collapse of neo-assyrian empire 605 bc. medes subsequently able establish median kingdom (with ecbatana royal centre) beyond original homeland , had territory stretching northeastern iran halys river in anatolia. after fall of assyrian empire, between 616 bce , 605 bce, unified median state formed, which, babylonia, lydia, , egypt, became 1 of 4 major powers of ancient near east

later on, in 550 bc, cyrus great, overthrow leading median rule, , conquer kingdom of lydia , babylonian empire after established achaemenid empire (or first persian empire), while successors dramatically extend borders. @ greatest extent, achaemenid empire encompass swaths of territory across 3 continents, namely europe, africa , asia, stretching balkans , eastern europe proper in west, indus valley in east. largest empire of ancient history, base in persis (although main capital located in babylon) achaemenids rule of known ancient world centuries. first persian empire equally notable successful model of centralised, bureaucratic administration (through satraps under king) , government working profit of subjects, building infrastructure such postal system , road systems , use of official language across territories , large professional army , civil services (inspiring similar systems in later empires), , emancipation of slaves including jewish exiles in babylon, , noted in western history antagonist of greek city states during greco-persian wars. mausoleum @ halicarnassus, 1 of 7 wonders of ancient world, built in empire well.

the greco-persian wars resulted in persians being forced withdraw european territories, setting direct further course of history of greece , rest of europe. more century later, prince of macedon (which subject persia late 6th century bc first persian invasion of greece) later known name of alexander great, overthrew incumbent persian king, achaemenid empire ended.

old persian attested in behistun inscription (c. 519 bce), recording proclamation darius great. in southwestern iran, achaemenid kings wrote inscriptions in trilingual form (elamite, babylonian , old persian) while elsewhere other languages used. administrative languages elamite in period, , later imperial aramaic, greek, making used bureaucratic language. though achaemenids had extensive contacts greeks , vice versa, , had conquered many of greek-speaking area s both in europe , asia minor during different periods of empire, native old iranian sources provide no indication of greek linguistic evidence. however, there plenty of evidence (in addition accounts of herodotus) greeks, apart being deployed , employed in core regions of empire, evidently lived , worked in heartland of achaemenid empire, namely iran. example, greeks part of various ethnicities constructed darius palace in susa, apart greek inscriptions found nearby there, , 1 short persepolis tablet written in greek.

the inhabitants of achaemenid empire appear have adopted religion of zoroastrianism. baloch speak west iranian language relate oral tradition regarding migration aleppo, syria around year 1000 ce, whereas linguistic evidence links balochi kurmanji, soranî, gorani , zazaki language.

eastern iranian peoples

hormizd i, sassanian coin

while iranian tribes of south better known through texts , modern counterparts, tribes remained largely in vast eurasian expanse known through references made them ancient greeks, persians, chinese, , indo-aryans archaeological finds. greek chronicler, herodotus (5th century bce) makes references nomadic people, scythians; describes them having dwelt in today southern european russia , ukraine. first make reference them. many ancient sanskrit texts later period make references such tribes witness of pointing them towards southeastern-most edges of central asia, around hindukush range in northern pakistan.

it believed these scythians conquered eastern cousins, sarmatians, mentioned strabo dominant tribe controlled southern russian steppe in 1st millennium ce. these sarmatians known romans, conquered western tribes in balkans , sent sarmatian conscripts, part of roman legions, far west roman britain. these iranian-speaking scythians , sarmatians dominated large parts of eastern europe millennium, , absorbed , assimilated (e.g. slavicisation) proto-slavic population of region.

the sarmatians differed scythians in veneration of god of fire rather god of nature, , women s prominent role in warfare, possibly served inspiration amazons. @ greatest reported extent, around 1st century ad, these tribes ranged vistula river mouth of danube , eastward volga, bordering shores of black , caspian seas caucasus south. territory, known sarmatia greco-roman ethnographers, corresponded western part of greater scythia (mostly modern ukraine , southern russia, smaller extent north eastern balkans around moldova). according authors arrowsmith, fellowes , graves hansard in book grammar of ancient geography published in 1832, sarmatia had 2 parts, sarmatia europea , sarmatia asiatica covering combined area of 503,000 sq mi or 1,302,764 km.

throughout first millennium ad, large presence of sarmatians once dominated ukraine, southern european russia, , swaths of balkans, gradually started diminish due assimilation , absorption germanic goths, areas near roman frontier, , climactically (proto-slavic peoples. abundant east iranian-derived toponyms in eastern europe proper (e.g. of largest rivers; dniestr , dniepr) , balkans, loanwords adopted predominantly through eastern slavic languages , adopted aspects of iranian culture amongst slavs, remnant of this. connection between proto-slavonic , iranian languages furthermore proven earliest layer of loanwords in former. instance, proto-slavonic words god (*bogъ), demon (*divъ), house (*xata), axe (*toporъ) , dog (*sobaka) of scythian origin.

a further point on behalf of extensive contact between these scytho-sarmatian iranian tribes in eastern europe , (early) slavs shown in matters regarding religion. after slavic , baltic languages diverged –- evidenced etymology –- slavs interacted iranian peoples , merged elements of iranian spirituality beliefs. example, both iranian , slavic supreme gods considered givers of wealth, unlike supreme thunder gods in many other european religions. also, both slavs , iranians had demons –- given names similar linguistic roots, daêva (iranian) , divŭ (slavic) –- , concept of dualism, of , evil.

the sarmatians of east, based in north caucasus, became alans, ventured far , wide, branch ending in western europe , north africa, accompanied germanic vandals during migrations. modern ossetians believed sole direct descendants of alans, other remnants of alans disappeared following germanic, hunnic , slavic migrations , invasions. group of alans allied goths defeat romans , settled in called catalonia (goth-alania).

silver coin of indo-scythian king azes ii (reigned c. 35–12 bce). buddhist triratna symbol in left field on reverse



scythian horseman, pazyryk, detail carpet, c. 300 bce

some of saka-scythian tribes in central asia later move further southeast , invade iranian plateau, large sections of present-day afghanistan , deep present day pakistan (see indo-scythians). iranian tribe related saka-scythians parni in central asia, , later become indistinguishable parthians, speakers of northwest-iranian language. many iranian tribes, including khwarazmians, massagetae , sogdians, assimilated and/or displaced in central asia migrations of turkic tribes emanating out of xinjiang , siberia.

the dominant surviving eastern iranian peoples represented pashtuns, origins believed province of ghor, began spread until reached far west herat, north areas of southern , eastern afghanistan; , eastward towards indus. pashto language shows affinities avestan , bactrian.

the modern sarikoli in southern xinjiang , ossetians of caucasus (mainly south ossetia , north ossetia) remnants of various scythian-derived tribes vast far , wide territory once dwelled in. modern ossetians descendants of alano-sarmatians, , claims supported northeast iranian language, while culturally ossetians resemble north caucasian neighbors, kabardians , circassians. various extinct iranian peoples existed in eastern caucasus, including azaris, while iranian peoples remain in region, including talysh , tats (including judeo-tats, have relocated israel), found in azerbaijan , far north russian republic of dagestan. remnant of sogdians found in yaghnobi-speaking population in parts of zeravshan valley in tajikistan.

later developments

starting reign of omar in 634 ce, muslim arabs began conquest of iranian plateau. arabs conquered sassanid empire of persians , seized of byzantine empire populated kurds , others. ultimately, various iranian peoples, including persians, pashtuns, kurds , balochis, converted islam, while alans converted christianity, laying foundation fact modern-day ossetians christian. iranian peoples later split along sectarian lines persians (and later hazara) adopted shi sect. ancient tribes , identities changed, did iranian peoples, many of whom assimilated foreign cultures , peoples.

later, during 2nd millennium ce, iranian peoples play prominent role during age of islamic expansion , empire. saladin, noted adversary of crusaders, ethnic kurd, while various empires centered in iran (including safavids) re-established modern dialect of persian official language spoken throughout of today iran , caucasus. iranian influence spread neighbouring ottoman empire, persian spoken @ court (though heavy turko-persian basis there set predecessors of ottomans in anatolia, namely seljuks , sultanate of rum amongst others) court of mughal empire. of major iranian peoples reasserted use of iranian languages following decline of arab rule, not begin form modern national identities until 19th , 20th centuries (just germans , italians beginning formulate national identities of own).